প্রাচীন প্রযুক্তি

Md Abu Sayeed: হটক্যাটের মাধ্যমে বিষয়শ্রেণী:প্রাচীন প্রযুক্তি যোগ

”’প্রাচীন প্রযুক্তি”’ সভ্যতার বিকাশের সময়, প্রাচীনকালে প্রকৌশলের অগ্রগতির ফলাফল ছিল। প্রযুক্তির ইতিহাসে এই অগ্রগতি সমাজগুলিকে জীবনযাপন ও শাসনের নতুন উপায় গ্রহণ করতে উদ্বুদ্ধ করেছে।

এই নিবন্ধটি মধ্যযুগের আগে ঐতিহাসিক সময়ে প্রযুক্তির অগ্রগতি এবং বিভিন্ন প্রকৌশল বিজ্ঞানের উন্নয়ন অন্তর্ভুক্ত করে, যা ৪৭৬ খ্রিস্টাব্দে পশ্চিমী রোমান সাম্রাজ্যের পতনের পর শুরু হয়েছিল।<ref>Clare, I. S. (1906). Library of universal history: containing a record of the human race from the earliest historical period to the present time; embracing a general survey of the progress of mankind in national and social life, civil government, religion, literature, science and art. New York: Union Book. Page 1519 (cf., Ancient history, as we have already seen, ended with the fall of the Western Roman Empire; […])</ref><ref>United Center for Research and Training in History. (1973). Bulgarian historical review. Sofia: Pub. House of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences. Page 43. (cf. … in the history of Western Europe, which marks both the end of ancient history and the beginning of the Middle Ages, is the fall of the Western Empire.)</ref> ৬ষ্ঠ শতাব্দীতে জাস্টিনিয়ান প্রথমের মৃত্যু, ৭ম শতাব্দীতে ইসলামের আগমন,<ref>Robinson, C. A. (1951). Ancient history from prehistoric times to the death of Justinian. New York: Macmillan.</ref> ৭ম শতাব্দীতে ইসলামের আগমন,,<ref>Breasted, J. H. (1916). [https://archive.org/details/ancienttimesahi01breagoog Ancient times, a history of the early world: an introduction to the study of ancient history and the career of early man]. Boston: Ginn and Company.</ref> বা ৮ম শতাব্দীতে শার্লেমেনের উত্থান।.<ref>Myers, P. V. N. (1916). [https://archive.org/details/ancienthistory02myergoog Ancient history]. New York [etc.]: Ginn and company.</ref> মধ্যযুগীয় সমাজে বিকশিত প্রযুক্তির জন্য, মধ্যযুগীয় ইসলামে মধ্যযুগীয় প্রযুক্তি এবং আবিষ্কারগুলি দেখুন।

== প্রাচীন সভ্যতা ==
===Africa===
{{main|Science and technology in Africa}}
Technology in Africa has a history stretching to the beginning of the human species, stretching back to the first evidence of [[Stone Age|tool use]] by hominid ancestors in the [[Hominid evolution|areas of Africa]] where humans are believed to have evolved. Africa saw the advent of some of the earliest [[ironworking]] technology in the [[Aïr Mountains]] region of what is today [[Niger]] and the erection of some of the world’s oldest monuments, pyramids, and towers in [[Egypt]], [[Nubia]], and [[History of North Africa|North Africa]]. In Nubia and ancient Kush, glazed quartzite and building in brick were developed to a greater extent than in Egypt. Parts of the East African [[Swahili Coast]] saw the creation of the world’s oldest [[carbon steel]] creation with high-temperature [[blast furnace]]s created by the [[Haya people]] of Tanzania.

=== Mesopotamia ===

The Mesopotamians were one of the first to enter the [[Bronze Age]] in the world. Early on they used [[copper]], [[bronze]] and [[gold]], and later they used [[iron]]. Palaces were decorated with hundreds of kilograms of these very expensive metals. Also, copper, bronze, and iron were used for [[armor]] as well as for different weapons such as [[sword]]s, [[dagger]]s, [[spear]]s, and [[mace (bludgeon)|mace]]s.

Perhaps the most important advance made by the [[Mesopotamia]]ns was the [[Cuneiform|invention of writing]] by the [[Sumer]]ians. With the invention of writing came the first recorded laws called the [[Code of Hammurabi]] as well as the first major piece of literature called the [[Epic of Gilgamesh]].

Several of the six classic [[simple machines]] were invented in Mesopotamia.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Moorey |first1=Peter Roger Stuart |title=Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence |date=1999 |publisher=[[Eisenbrauns]] |isbn=9781575060422}}</ref> Mesopotamians have been credited with the invention of the [[wheel]]. The [[wheel and axle]] mechanism first appeared with the [[potter’s wheel]], invented in [[Mesopotamia]] (modern Iraq) during the 5th millennium BC.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East|author=D.T. Potts|year=2012|page=285}}</ref> This led to the invention of the [[wheeled vehicle]] in Mesopotamia during the early 4th millennium BC. Depictions of wheeled [[wagon]]s found on [[clay tablet]] [[pictographs]] at the [[Uruk#Eanna District|Eanna district]] of [[Uruk]] are dated between 3700 and 3500 BC.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Attema |first1=P. A. J. |last2=Los-Weijns |first2=Ma |last3=Pers |first3=N. D. Maring-Van der |title=Bronocice, Flintbek, Uruk, JEbel Aruda and Arslantepe: The Earliest Evidence Of Wheeled Vehicles In Europe And The Near East |journal=Palaeohistoria |date=December 2006 |volume=47/48 |publisher=[[University of Groningen]] |pages=10–28 (11)}}</ref> The [[lever]] was used in the [[shadoof]] water-lifting device, the first [[Crane (machine)|crane]] machine, which appeared in Mesopotamia circa 3000 BC.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Paipetis |first1=S. A. |last2=Ceccarelli |first2=Marco |title=The Genius of Archimedes – 23 Centuries of Influence on Mathematics, Science and Engineering: Proceedings of an International Conference held at Syracuse, Italy, June 8-10, 2010 |date=2010 |publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]] |isbn=9789048190911 |page=416}}</ref> and then in [[ancient Egyptian technology]] circa 2000 BC.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Faiella |first1=Graham |title=The Technology of Mesopotamia |date=2006 |publisher=[[The Rosen Publishing Group]] |isbn=9781404205604 |page=27 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bGMyBTS0-v0C&pg=PA27}}</ref> The earliest evidence of [[pulley]]s date back to Mesopotamia in the early 2nd millennium BC.<ref name=”Eisenbrauns”>{{cite book |last1=Moorey |first1=Peter Roger Stuart |title=Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientmesopotam00moor |url-access=limited |date=1999 |publisher=[[Eisenbrauns]] |isbn=9781575060422 |page=[https://archive.org/details/ancientmesopotam00moor/page/n12 4]}}</ref>

The [[Screw (simple machine)|screw]], the last of the simple machines to be invented,<ref name=”Woods”>{{cite book | last = Woods| first = Michael |author2=Mary B. Woods| title = Ancient Machines: From Wedges to Waterwheels| publisher = Twenty-First Century Books| year = 2000| location = USA| pages = 58| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=E1tzW_aDnxsC&pg=PA58| isbn = 0-8225-2994-7}}</ref> first appeared in Mesopotamia during the [[Neo-Assyrian]] period (911-609) BC.<ref name=”Eisenbrauns”/> According to the assyriologist [[Stephanie Dalley]], the earliest [[pump]] was the [[screw pump]], first used by [[Sennacherib]], King of [[Assyria]], for the [[Domestic water system|water systems]] at the [[Hanging Gardens of Babylon]] and [[Nineveh]] in the 7th century BC. This attribution, however, is disputed by the historian [[John Peter Oleson]].<ref>Stephanie Dalley and [[John Peter Oleson]] (January 2003). “Sennacherib, Archimedes, and the Water Screw: The Context of Invention in the Ancient World”, ”Technology and Culture” ”’44”’ (1).</ref><ref name=”Oleson”>{{Cite book
| last = Oleson
| first = John Peter
| author-link = John Peter Oleson
| year = 2000
| contribution = Water-Lifting
| editor-last = Wikander
| editor-first = Örjan
| editor-link = Örjan Wikander
| title = Handbook of Ancient Water Technology
| series = Technology and Change in History
| volume = 2
| pages = 217–302 (242–251)
| isbn = 90-04-11123-9
| publisher = Brill
| location = Leiden}}</ref>

The Mesopotamians used a [[sexagesimal]] number system with the base 60 (like we use base 10). They divided time up by 60s including a 60-second minute and a 60-minute hour, which we still use today. They also divided up the circle into 360 degrees. They had a wide knowledge of mathematics including addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, quadratic and cubic equations, and fractions. This was important in keeping track of records as well as in some of their large building projects. The Mesopotamians had formulas for figuring out the circumference and area for different geometric shapes like rectangles, circles, and triangles. Some evidence suggests that they even knew the Pythagorean Theorem long before Pythagoras wrote it down. They may have even discovered the number for pi in figuring the circumference of a circle.

[[Babylonian astronomy]] was able to follow the movements of the stars, planets, and the Moon. Application of advanced math predicted the movements of several planets. By studying the phases of the Moon, the Mesopotamians created the first [[calendar]]. It had 12 lunar months and was the predecessor for both the [[Jewish calendar|Jewish]] and [[Greek calendar]]s.

[[Babylonian medicine]] used logic and recorded medical history to be able to diagnose and treat illnesses with various creams and pills. Mesopotamians had two kinds of medical practices, magical and physical, and would often use both practices on the same patient.<ref>Robert Alan Chadwick, ”First Civilization: Ancient Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt (2)” (London: Equinox Publishing Ltd, 2005), 119.</ref>

The Mesopotamians made many technological discoveries. They were the first to use the potter’s wheel to make better pottery, they used irrigation to get water to their crops, they used bronze metal (and later iron metal) to make strong tools and weapons, and used looms to weave cloth from wool.

The Jerwan Aqueduct (c. 688 BC) is made with stone arches and lined with waterproof concrete.<ref>T Jacobsen and S Lloyd, ”Sennacherib’s Aqueduct at Jerwan”, Chicago University Press, (1935)</ref>

For later technologies developed in the Mesopotamian region, now known as [[Iraq]], see [[#Persia|Persia]] below for developments under the ancient [[Persian Empire]], and the [[Inventions in medieval Islam]] and [[Arab Agricultural Revolution]] articles for developments under the medieval Islamic [[Caliphate]]s.

===Egypt===
{{Main|Ancient Egyptian technology}}
[[File:TurinPapyrus1.jpg|right|thumb|350px|Left half of the Turin papyrus map, courtesy J. Harrell]]
The [[Egyptians]] invented and used many simple machines, such as the [[inclined plane|ramp]] to aid construction processes. They were among the first to extract [[gold]] by large-scale mining using [[fire-setting]], and the first recognisable [[map]], the [[Turin Papyrus Map|Turin papyrus]] shows the plan of one such mine in [[Nubia]].

The [[Egyptians]] are known for building [[pyramid]]s centuries before the creation of modern tools. Historians and archaeologists have found evidence that the [[Egyptian pyramids]] were built using three of what is called the [[Simple machine|Six Simple Machines]], from which all machines are based. These machines are the [[inclined plane]], the [[wedge]], and the [[lever]], which allowed the ancient Egyptians to move millions of limestone blocks which weighed approximately 3.5 tons (7,000 lbs.) each into place to create structures like the [[Great Pyramid of Giza]], which is {{convert|481|ft|m|abbr=off|sp=us}} high.<ref>{{cite book|title=Ancient Machines: From Grunts to Graffiti|last=Wood|first=Michael|publisher=Runestone Press|year=2000|isbn=0-8225-2996-3|location=Minneapolis, MN|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ancientcommunica00wood/page/35 35, 36]|url=https://archive.org/details/ancientcommunica00wood/page/35}}</ref>

Egyptian [[paper]], made from [[papyrus]], and [[pottery]] were mass-produced and exported throughout the Mediterranean basin. The [[wheel]], however, did not arrive until foreign invaders introduced the [[chariot]]. They developed Mediterranean [[maritime history|maritime]] technology including ships and lighthouses. Early construction techniques utilized by the Ancient Egyptians made use of bricks composed mainly of clay, sand, silt, and other minerals. These constructs would have been vital in flood control and irrigation, especially along the Nile delta.<ref>Jerzy Trzciñski, Malgorzata Zaremba, Sawomir Rzepka, Fabian Welc, and Tomasz Szczepañski. “Preliminary Report on Engineering Properties and Environmental Resistance of Ancient Mud Bricks from Tell El-retaba Archaeological Site in the Nile Delta,” ”Studia Quarternaria” 33, no. 1 (2016): 55.</ref>

The [[screw pump]] is the oldest positive displacement pump.<ref name=”Stewart”>{{cite book | last = Stewart| first = Bobby Alton|author2=Terry A. Howell| title = Encyclopedia of water science| publisher = CRC Press| year = 2003| location = USA| page = 759| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=5cP-81xDWuwC&pg=PA759| isbn = 0-8247-0948-9}}</ref> The first records of a screw pump, also known as a [[water screw]] or [[Archimedes’ screw]], dates back to [[Ancient Egypt]] before the 3rd century BC.<ref name=”Stewart”/><ref name=”Britannica”>{{cite encyclopedia| title = Screw| encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica online| publisher = The Encyclopaedia Britannica Co.| year = 2011| url = http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/529876/screw| access-date = 2011-03-24}}</ref> The Egyptian screw, used to lift water from the [[Nile]], was composed of tubes wound around a cylinder; as the entire unit rotates, water is lifted within the spiral tube to the higher elevation. A later screw pump design from Egypt had a spiral groove cut on the outside of a solid wooden cylinder and then the cylinder was covered by boards or sheets of metal closely covering the surfaces between the grooves.<ref name=”Stewart”/> The screw pump was later introduced from Egypt to Greece.<ref name=”Stewart”/>

For later technologies in [[Ptolemaic Egypt]] and [[Ægyptus|Roman Egypt]], see [[Ancient Greek technology]] and [[Roman technology]], respectively. For later technology in medieval [[History of Arab Egypt|Arabic Egypt]], see [[Inventions in medieval Islam]] and [[Arab Agricultural Revolution]].

=== Indian subcontinent ===
{{main|History of Indian Science and Technology }}
{{See also|List of Indian inventions|List of inventions and discoveries of the Indus Valley civilization | Indian maritime history}}

The [[history of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent]] dates back to the earliest civilizations of the world. The [[Indus Valley civilization]] yields evidence of [[mathematics]], [[hydrography]], [[metrology]], [[metallurgy]], [[astronomy]], [[medicine]], [[surgery]], [[civil engineering]] and sewage collection and disposal being practiced by its inhabitants.

The [[Indus Valley civilization]], situated in a resource-rich area (in modern [[Pakistan]] and northwestern [[India]]), is notable for its early application of city planning, [[Sanitation of the Indus Valley civilisation|sanitation technologies]], and [[plumbing]].<ref>{{cite book| last1 = Teresi| first1 = Dick| author-link = Dick Teresi| title = Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern Science—from the Babylonians to the Maya| publisher = Simon & Schuster| year = 2002| location = New York| pages = [https://archive.org/details/lostdiscoveriesa00tere/page/351 351–352]| isbn = 0-684-83718-8| url = https://archive.org/details/lostdiscoveriesa00tere/page/351}}</ref> Cities in the Indus Valley offer some of the first examples of closed gutters, public baths, and communal granaries.

The [[Takshashila]] University was an important seat of learning in the ancient world. It was the center of education for scholars from all over Asia. Many [[Greeks|Greek]], Persian and [[China|Chinese]] students studied here under great scholars including [[Kautilya]], Panini, [[Jivaka]], and Vishnu Sharma.
[[File:Mohenjo-daro.jpg|thumb|200px|Excavated ruins of [[Mohenjo-daro]], Pakistan.]]

The ancient system of medicine in India, [[Ayurveda]] was a significant milestone in Indian history. It mainly uses herbs as medicines. Its origins can be traced back to origin of [[Atharvaveda]]. The [[Sushruta Samhita]] (400 BC) by Sushruta has details about performing cataract surgery, plastic surgery, etc.

Ancient India was also at the forefront of seafaring technology – a panel found at [[Mohenjo-daro]], depicts a sailing craft. Ship construction is vividly described in the Yukti Kalpa Taru, an ancient Indian text on Shipbuilding. (The Yukti Kalpa Taru had been translated and published by [[Theodor Aufrecht|Prof. Aufrecht]] in his ‘Catalogue of Sanskrit [[Manuscripts]]’).

Indian construction and architecture, called ‘[[Vaastu Shastra]]’, suggests a thorough understanding of materials engineering, hydrology, and sanitation. Ancient Indian culture was also pioneering in its use of vegetable dyes, cultivating plants including [[indigo]] and [[cinnabar]]. Many of the dyes were used in art and sculpture. The use of [[perfume]]s demonstrates some knowledge of [[chemistry]], particularly [[distillation]] and purification processes.

=== China ===
{{main|History of science and technology in China|List of Chinese inventions}}
[[File:ArmillarySphere1.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Chinese [[armillary sphere]]]]

The [[history of science and technology in China]] shows significant advances in science, technology, mathematics, and astronomy. The first recorded observations of comets, solar eclipses, and supernovae were made in China.{{citation needed|date=May 2013}} Traditional Chinese medicine, acupuncture and herbal medicine were also practiced. The [[Four Great Inventions]] of China: the [[compass]], [[gunpowder]], papermaking, and printing were among the most important technological advances, only known in Europe by the end of the Middle Ages.

According to the Scottish researcher [[Joseph Needham]], the Chinese made many first-known discoveries and developments. Major technological contributions from China include early [[Seismology|seismological]] detectors, [[matches]], [[paper]], the double-action [[piston pump]], [[cast iron]], the iron [[plough]], the multi-tube [[seed drill]], the [[suspension bridge]], [[natural gas]] as fuel, the [[magnetic compass]], the [[raised-relief map]], the [[propeller]], the [[crossbow]], the [[south-pointing chariot]], and [[gunpowder]]. Other Chinese discoveries and inventions from the Medieval period, according to Joseph Needham’s research, include: [[block printing]] and [[movable type]], phosphorescent paint, and the [[spinning wheel]].

The solid-fuel [[rocket]] was invented in China about 1150 AD, nearly 200 years after the invention of [[black powder]] (which acted as the rocket’s fuel). At the same time that the [[age of exploration]] was occurring in the West, the Chinese emperors of the [[Ming Dynasty]] also sent ships, [[Treasure voyages|some reaching Africa]]. But the enterprises were not further funded, halting further exploration and development. When [[Ferdinand Magellan]]’s ships reached [[Brunei]] in 1521, they found a wealthy city that had been fortified by Chinese engineers, and protected by a [[breakwater (structure)|breakwater]]. [[Antonio Pigafetta]] noted that much of the technology of Brunei was equal to Western technology of the time. Also, there were more cannons in Brunei than on Magellan’s ships, and the Chinese merchants to the Brunei court had sold them [[spectacles]] and [[porcelain]], which were rarities in Europe.

===Persian Empire===
{{main|Science and technology in Iran}}

The [[Qanat]], a water management system used for irrigation, originated in [[Iran]] before the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid period]] of Persia<!– Do not link to the disambiguation page, “Persian Empire”; link to a specific iteration of this topic –>. The oldest and largest known qanat is in the Iranian city of [[Gonabad]] which, after 2,700 years, still provides drinking and agricultural water to nearly 40,000 people.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Ward English | first = Paul | title = The Origin and Spread of Qanats in the Old World | journal = Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society | volume = 112| issue = 3 | pages =170–181 | publisher = [[JSTOR]]
| date = June 21, 1968 | jstor=986162}}</ref>

The earliest evidence of [[water wheel]]s and [[watermill]]s date back to the [[ancient Near East]] in the 4th century BC,<ref>Terry S. Reynolds, ”Stronger than a Hundred Men: A History of the Vertical Water Wheel”, JHU Press, 2002 {{ISBN|0-8018-7248-0}}, p. 14</ref> specifically in the [[Persian Empire]] before 350 BC, in the regions of Mesopotamia (Iraq) and [[Persia]] (Iran).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Selin |first1=Helaine |title=Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Westen Cultures |date=2013 |publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]] |isbn=9789401714167 |page=282 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GzjpCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA282}}</ref> This pioneering use of [[water power]] constituted the first human-devised motive force not to rely on muscle power (besides the [[sail]]).

In the 7th century AD, Persians in [[Afghanistan]] developed the first practical [[windmill]]s. For later medieval technologies developed in [[Islamization of Iran|Islamic Persia]], see [[Inventions in medieval Islam]] and [[Arab Agricultural Revolution]].

=== Mesoamerica and Andean Region ===
Lacking suitable beasts of burden and inhabiting domains often too mountainous or boggy for wheeled transport, the ancient civilizations of the Americas did not develop wheeled transport or the mechanics associated with animal power. Nevertheless, they produced advanced engineering including above ground and underground aqueducts, quake-proof masonry, artificial lakes, dykes, ‘fountains,’ pressurized water,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://live.psu.edu/story/46532 |title=Maya plumbing, first pressurized water feature found in New World |author=A’ndrea Messer |date=February 8, 2011 |website=Penn State News |access-date=August 25, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130208225152/http://live.psu.edu/story/46532 |archive-date=2013-02-08 |url-status=dead }}</ref> road ways and complex terracing. Equally, gold-working commenced early in Peru (2000 BC),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://archaeology./b/2008/03/31/the-first-gold-working-in-peru.htm | archive-date=April 12, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140412174748/http://archaeology./b/2008/03/31/the-first-gold-working-in-peru.htm |title=A Walking Tour of Machu Picchu, Peru |author=K. Kris Hirst |website= |access-date= August 25, 2015}}</ref> and eventually copper, tin, lead and bronze were used.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lechtman|first=Heather|date=1985|title=The Significance of Metals in Pre-Columbian Andean Culture|journal=Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences|volume=38|issue=5|pages=9–37|via=JSTOR}}</ref> Although metallurgy did not spread to Mesoamerica until the Middle Ages, it was employed here and in the Andes for sophisticated alloys and gilding. The Native Americans developed a complex understanding of the chemical properties or utility of natural substances, with the result that a majority of the world’s early medicinal drugs and edible crops, many important adhesives, paints, fibres, plasters, and other useful items were the products of these civilizations.{{Citation needed|date=March 2012}} Perhaps the best-known Mesoamerican invention was rubber, which was used to create rubber bands, rubber bindings, balls, syringes, ‘raincoats,’ boots, and waterproof insulation on containers and flasks.

=== Hellenistic Mediterranean ===
{{main|Ancient Greek technology}}

The [[Hellenistic period]] of [[History of the Mediterranean region|Mediterranean history]] began in the 4th century BC with [[Alexander’s conquests]], which led to the emergence of a [[Hellenistic civilization]] representing a synthesis of [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[Near-East]]ern cultures in the [[Eastern Mediterranean]] region, including the [[Balkans]], [[Levant]] and [[Egypt]].<ref name=”Green”>Green, Peter. ”Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age”. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.</ref> With [[Ptolemaic Egypt]] as its intellectual center and Greek as the lingua franca, the Hellenistic civilization included [[Greeks in Egypt|Greek]], [[Egyptians|Egyptian]], [[Jew]]ish, [[Persian people|Persian]] and [[Phoenicia]]n scholars and engineers who wrote in Greek.<ref>George G. Joseph (2000). ”The Crest of the Peacock”, p. 7-8. [[Princeton University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-691-00659-8}}.</ref>

Hellenistic technology made significant progress from the 4th century BC, continuing up to and including the Roman period. Some inventions that are credited to the ancient Greeks are the following: bronze casting techniques, [[water organ]] (hydraulis), and [[torsion siege engine]]. Many of these inventions occurred late in the Hellenistic period, often inspired by the need to improve weapons and tactics in war.

Hellenistic engineers of the Eastern Mediterranean were responsible for a number of inventions and improvements to existing technology. [[Archimedes]] invented several machines. Hellenistic engineers often combined scientific research with the development of new technologies. Technologies invented by Hellenistic engineers include the [[ballista]]e, the [[piston pump]], and primitive [[analog computers]] like the [[Antikythera mechanism]]. Hellenistic architects built [[dome]]s, and were the first to explore the [[Golden ratio]] and its relationship with geometry and architecture.

Other Hellenistic innovations include torsion catapults, pneumatic catapults, crossbows, rutways, organs, the keyboard mechanism, differential gears, showers, dry docks, diving bells, odometer and astrolabes. In architecture, Hellenistic engineers constructed monumental lighthouses such as the [[Lighthouse of Alexandria|Pharos]] and devised central heating systems. The [[Tunnel of Eupalinos]] is the earliest tunnel which has been excavated with a scientific approach from both ends.

Automata like automatic doors and other ingenious devices were built by Hellenistic engineers as [[Ctesibius]] and [[Philo of Byzantium]]. Greek technological treatises were scrupulously studied and advanced by later Byzantine, Arabic and Latin scholars, and provided some of the foundations for further technological advances in these civilizations.

=== Roman Empire ===
{{main|Ancient Roman technology}}
[[File:Pont du Gard BLS.jpg|right|thumb|[[Pont du Gard]] in France, a Roman aqueduct]]
[[File:Archscrew2.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Drainage wheel from Rio Tinto mines]]
[[File:Heron’s Windwheel.png|thumb|200px|[[Hero of Alexandria|Hero]]’s wind-powered [[Organ (music)|organ]] (reconstruction)]]

The [[Roman Empire]] expanded from [[Roman Italy|Italia]] across the entire [[Mediterranean region]] between the 1st century BC and 1st century AD. Its most advanced and economically productive provinces outside of Italia were the [[Eastern Roman Empire|Eastern Roman]] provinces in the [[Balkans]], [[Asia Minor]], [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]], and the [[Levant]], with [[Roman Egypt]] in particular being the wealthiest Roman province outside of Italia.<ref>[[Angus Maddison|Maddison, Angus]] (2007), ”Contours of the World Economy, 1–2030 AD: Essays in Macro-Economic History”, p. 55, table 1.14, [[Oxford University Press]], {{ISBN|978-0-19-922721-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Herons von Alexandria Druckwerke und Automatentheater |author-last=Hero |author-link=Hero of Alexandria |others=Wilhelm Schmidt (translator) |place=Leipzig |publisher=B.G. Teubner |date=1899 |language=el, de |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/heronsvonalexandhero#page/228/mode/2up |pages=228–232 |chapter=Pneumatika, Book ΙΙ, Chapter XI}}</ref>

[[Roman technology]] supported Roman civilization and made the expansion of Roman commerce and Roman military possible over nearly a thousand years. The Roman Empire had an advanced set of technology for their time. Some of the Roman technology in Europe may have been lost during the turbulent eras of Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. Roman technological feats in many different areas such as civil engineering, construction materials, transport technology, and some inventions such as the [[mechanical reaper]] went unmatched until the 19th century. Romans developed an intensive and sophisticated agriculture, expanded upon existing iron working technology, created [[Roman law|laws]] providing for individual ownership, advanced stonemasonry technology, advanced [[Roman road|road-building]] (exceeded only in the 19th century), military engineering, civil engineering, spinning and weaving and several different machines like the [[reaper|Gallic reaper]] that helped to increase productivity in many sectors of the Roman economy. They also developed water power through building aqueducts on a grand scale, using water not just for drinking supplies but also for [[irrigation]], powering [[water mill]]s and in mining. They used drainage wheels extensively in deep underground mines, one device being the [[reverse overshot water-wheel]]. They were the first to apply [[hydraulic mining]] methods for prospecting for metal ores, and for extracting those ores from the ground when found using a method known as [[hushing]].

Roman engineers have built [[triumphal arches]], [[List of Roman amphitheatres|amphitheatres]], [[Roman aqueduct|aqueducts]], [[Thermae|public baths]], [[Roman bridge|true arch bridges]], [[harbour]]s, [[List of Roman dams|dam]]s, vaults and [[List of Roman domes|domes]] on a very large scale across their Empire. Notable Roman inventions include the [[Codex|book (Codex)]], [[glass blowing]] and [[concrete]]. Because Rome was located on a volcanic peninsula, with sand which contained suitable crystalline grains, the [[concrete]] which the Romans formulated was especially durable. Some of their buildings have lasted 2000 years, to the present day. Roman society had also carried over the design of a door lock with tumblers and springs from Greece. Like many other aspects of innovation and culture that were carried on from Greece to Rome, the lines between where each one originated from have become skewed over time. These mechanisms were highly sophisticated and intricate for the era.<ref>Naif A. Haddad, “Critical Review, Assessment and Investigation of Ancient Technology Evolution of Door Locking Mechanisms in S.E. Mediterranean,” ”Mediterranean Archaeology & Archaeometry” 16, no. 1: 43-74.</ref>

Roman civilization was highly urbanized by pre-modern standards. Many cities of the [[Roman Empire]] had over 100,000 inhabitants with the capital Rome being the largest metropolis of antiquity. Features of Roman urban life included multistory apartment buildings called [[Insula (building)|insulae]], street paving, public flush toilets, glass windows and [[Hypocaust|floor and wall heating]]. The Romans understood [[hydraulics]] and constructed [[fountain]]s and waterworks, particularly [[Roman aqueduct|aqueduct]]s, which were the hallmark of their civilization. They exploited water power by building [[water mill]]s, sometimes in series, such as the sequence found at [[Barbegal]] in southern France and suspected on the [[Janiculum]] in Rome. Some [[Thermae|Roman baths]] have lasted to this day. The Romans developed many technologies which were apparently lost in the [[Middle Ages]], and were only fully reinvented in the 19th and 20th centuries. They also left texts describing their achievements, especially [[Pliny the Elder]], [[Frontinus]] and [[Vitruvius]].

Other less known Roman innovations include [[cement]], boat mills, arch [[dam]]s and possibly [[tide mill]]s.

In Roman Egypt, [[Heron of Alexandria]] invented the [[aeolipile]], a basic [[steam-power]]ed device, and demonstrated knowledge of mechanic and pneumatic systems. He was also the first to experiment with a [[wind-power]]ed mechanical device, a windwheel. He also described a [[vending machine]]. However, his inventions were primarily toys, rather than practical machines.

==আরো দেখুন==
* [[প্রযুক্তির ইতিহাস]]
** [[প্রাগৈতিহাসিক প্রযুক্তি]]
* [[মধ্যযুগীয় প্রযুক্তি]]
* [[মুসলিম বিশ্ব]]
** [[আরব কৃষি বিপ্লব]]
** [[ইসলামি স্বর্ণযুগ]]
** [[মধ্যযুগে ইসলামি বিশ্বের আবিষ্কারের তালিকা]]

==আরও পড়া==
* Humphrey, J. W. (2006). Ancient technology. Greenwood guides to historic events of the ancient world. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press.
* Rojcewicz, R. (2006). The gods and technology: a reading of Heidegger. SUNY series in theology and continental thought. Albany: State University of New York Press.
* Krebs, R. E., & Krebs, C. A. (2004). Groundbreaking scientific experiments, inventions, and discoveries of the ancient world. Groundbreaking scientific experiments, inventions, and discoveries through the ages. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press.
* Childress, D. H. (2000). Technology of the gods: the incredible sciences of the ancients. Kempton, Ill: Adventures Unlimited Press.
* Landels, J. G. (2000). Engineering in the ancient world. Berkeley: University of California Press.
* James, P., & Thorpe, N. (1995). Ancient inventions. New York: Ballantine Books.
* Hodges, H. (1992). Technology in the ancient world. New York: Barnes & Noble.
* National Geographic Society (U.S.). (1986). Builders of the ancient world: marvels of engineering. Washington, D.C.: The Society.
* American Ceramic Society, Kingery, W. D., & Lense, E. (1985). Ancient technology to modern science. Ceramics and civilization, v. 1. Columbus, Ohio: American Ceramic Society.
* Brown, M. (1966). On the theory and measurement of technological change. Cambridge: Cambridge U.P.
* [[Forbes, R. J.]] (1964). Studies in ancient technology. Leiden: E.J. Brill.

==তথ্যসূত্র==
{{সূত্র তালিকা}}

==বহিঃসংযোগ==
{{কমন্স বিষয়শ্রেণী}}

[[বিষয়শ্রেণী:প্রাচীন প্রযুক্তি]]

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